Mainstreaming Disabled Students Essay -- Teaching Education Inclusion

Mainstreaming Disabled Students As per the Curry School of Education, roughly 80% of understudies with learning incapacities get most of their guidance in the general homeroom (â€Å"Inclusion.† http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/curry/dept/cise/ose.html. 10 Oct. 1999). That number is relied upon to ascend as educators and guardians become mindful of the advantages of consideration. Since there are such huge numbers of handicapped understudies in normal schools, it is imperative to take a gander at whether mainstreaming is essential for their training. For guardians, having their debilitated youngsters mainstreamed into customary instruction can be a troublesome decision. Albeit incapacitated children’s instruction can be all the more testing in ordinary schools, the advantages of incorporation incorporate improved confidence, advancement of social abilities, and presentation to normal educational plan. Numerous individuals think mainstreaming just helps handicapped youngsters, yet there are numerous difficulties that hurt their instruction instead of help. Both workforce and understudies can be remorseless to debilitated understudies. Since they are not used to interfacing with handicapped kids, workforce and understudies might be awkward with the circumstance and be heartless toward the incapacitated kids. By disregarding the handicapped kids or rewarding them severely, the kids will lose confidence and may upset the class so as to show their misery. A few instructors are inexperienced with showing incapacitated youngsters, so the training is missing for the children....

Aim of Life 4 Essay Example

Point of Life 4 Essay Example Point of Life 4 Essay Point of Life 4 Essay Mr. President Respected educators and dear colleagues The given recommendation of the day is â€Å"my point in life† Sir , point is significant in life,it carries every one of our energies to one point. Robert Browning says : â€Å"The point, whenever came to or not makes extraordinary the life† It gives guidance for our endeavors. Our point resembles a directing star. What makes life melancholy is the need of rationale. At the point when a man doesn't have the foggiest idea what harbor he is making for,no wint is the privilege wint . Point that suits the idea of a man is the best for him. Mr. President Sir, I want to be an educator. Most likely , educator everywhere throughout the world are low-paid individuals . ecause the world can't pay for their administrations. There are a few explanations behind my decision. It is a nobel calling . The best individuals on the planet are the individuals who instruct others. To me this is the main calling wherein a man can serve hi s country in the most ideal way. Designers may manufacture stupendous buildings,metalled streets , gigantic dams . specialists may treat the patient and may place life into the dead; respectful and military officials may flaunt their administrations to the country. But,are they not what their educator have made them ? Mr. President Sir, An instructor resembles a stepping stool which stays at its place,but helps other people to go increasingly elevated. Rather than being an architects a specialist , or an official, it is smarter to be a designer. maker,a specialist producer . It is just the men are made in the instructing organizations. Mr. President Sir, Whatever others think about my point, I am fulfilled that by being an educator I can do much for my nation in an other manner. This point is as indicated by my taste and nature . Goving against it would bring about only mischief and disarray of mint. Words worth has stated: A respectable point, dependably kept, is as an honorable deed; In whose unadulterated sight all prudence succeed. Much obliged.

Riot Recommendation Novels About Hollywood

Riot Recommendation Novels About Hollywood This round of the  Riot Recommendation is sponsored by Actors Anonymous by James Franco. The actors in James Francos brilliant debut novel include a McDonalds drive-thru operator who spends his shift trying on accents; an ex-child star recalling a massive beachside bacchanal; hospital volunteers and Midwestern transplants; a vampire flick starlet who discovers a cryptic book written by a famous actor gone AWOL; and the ghost of River Phoenix. Then theres Franco himself, who prowls backstage, peering out between the lines-before taking the stage with fascinating meditations on his art, along with nightmarish tales of excess. Hollywood has always been a private club, he writes. I open the gates. I say welcome. I say,  Look inside. Told in a dizzying array of styles-from lyric essays and disarming testimonials to hilariously rambling text messages and ghostly footnotes-and loosely modeled on Alcoholics Anonymouss Twelve  Steps and Twelve Traditions, Actors Anonymous  is an intense, wild ride into the dark heart of celebrity. _________________________ Readers have been fascinated by celebrity since long before TMZ was a glimmer in Harvey Levins eye. Hollywoodthe glamor, the scandals, the scads of beautiful peoplecaptures the imagination and just begs to be the backdrop for all kinds of stories. In this Riot Rec, we want to know: what are your  favorite novels about Hollywood and celebrity? _________________________ Sign up for our newsletter to have the best of Book Riot delivered straight to your inbox every two weeks. No spam. We promise. To keep up with Book Riot on a daily basis, follow us on Twitter, like us on Facebook, , and subscribe to the Book Riot podcast in iTunes or via RSS. So much bookish goodnessall day, every day.

Sharps Safety Procedures And Guidelines - 1206 Words

Sharps Safety Procedures and Guidelines Kelli Bauman Baker University School of Nursing NU332: Foundations of Nursing November 11, 2015 Sharps Safety Procedure and Guidelines The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2011, para. 2) defines a sharps injury as, â€Å"a penetrating stab wound from a needle, scalpel, or other sharp object that may result in exposure to blood or other body fluids.† Different types of sharps include intravenous cannulas, butterfly needles, hypodermic needles, phlebotomy needles, lancets, scalpels, suture needles, razors, scissors, tissues, and fragments of bone (Weston, 2013, p.208). Sharps injuries affect a great number of health care professionals in the workplace. It is estimated that 385,000 sharp injuries occur per year among health care workers in hospitals. (â€Å"Stop Sticks Campaign†, 2011). Not only are these injuries harmful, the consequences of such injuries have the potential to be detrimental to health care providers or patients. One potential complication of a sharps injury is the transmission of pathogens.. A major concern dealing with disease transmission from sharps injuries is the transfer of blood borne pathogens, such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Sharps safety is an issue which could be reduced by health care professional education on the causes and situations in which sharp injuries occur, using preventing practices of injury, and through a culture of safety.Show MoreRelatedThe Center For Disease Control And Prevention1218 Words   |  5 Pages Sharp Safety Procedures and Guidelines Kelli Bauman Bake University School of Nursing NU332: Foundations of Nursing November 11, 2015 Sharps Safety Procedure and Guidelines The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2011, para. 2) defines a sharps injury as, â€Å"a penetrating stab wound from a needle, scalpel, or other sharp object that may result in exposure to blood or other body fluids.† Different types of sharps include intravenous cannulas, butterfly needles, hypodermicRead MoreOperation A Medium Size Hotel Locating At Suburb Of Melbourne1105 Words   |  5 Pagescrisis or serious threats to the hotel, staff or guests. 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I ensure the studentRead MoreDefinition of Development Appropriate Practice1100 Words   |  5 PagesHealth, Safety and Nutrition prepares students from early childhood through a group of basic information and theory, practices, and requirements for establishing and keeping safety, healthy learning environment and good nutrition through the training of children to pay attention to their health and their nutrition and safety. Definition of Development appropriate Practice : The definition of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is â€Å" a framework of principles and guidelines for bestRead MoreHealth Care Delivery Systems : Staffing And Delegation1199 Words   |  5 Pagesexplore the scope of service for all OR’s and determine staffing models necessary for safety of patients and employees alike. Many individuals see the OR as highly expensive area within the hospital due to equipment needs, instruments, supplies, suture, dressings, and everything in between; but, what does a typical day cost the hospital to staff and maintain the OR? How do long hours affect workplace and patient safety? The author will provide knowledge of staffing costs for an OR. Nursing in the ORRead MoreContribute to Children and Young Peoples Health and Safety (Cu1512)1354 Words   |  6 PagesC U 1 5 1 2 Contribute to children and young people’s Health and Safety 1.1 Outline the health and safety policies and procedures of your work setting. My work setting follows the laws and standards set by the Health and Safety Act 1974:- * Ensure that the environment is safe, secure with high quality of hygiene practices for staff, children and their families and any member of the public while using the premises. * Impose a total ban of smoking in the nursery indoor/ outdoorRead MoreThe Final Count Is Correct977 Words   |  4 Pagesdaily. This statement is a signal of safety for closing the patient s operative site. The occurrence of a retained surgical item (RSI) was the most frequently reported sentinel event from 2010 through 2012 and again in 2014 (The Joint Commission [TJC], 2012, 2014). Counting of surgical items is necessary to provide protection and safety of the patient. One of the highest priorities for the OR nurse is assuring the final count of items used in the surgical procedure is accurate. Risk factors for RSIs

The Economic Stimulus Act Of 2008 - 2374 Words

Phase One Introduction The Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 was intentionally supposed to re-energize the economy from a recession that occurred from 2001-2004. This paper will dive in further to explain the economic policies core provisions and the market failure it was intended to correct. 2008 Recession At the end of the recession from 2001-2004, a period that no economic growth, the Federal Reserve recommend that interest rates stay as low as possible. The idea behind this thought was that lower interest rates would attract people to investment in housing, business loans and other areas of economic growth. The idea worked, as more and more potential homeowners entered the market, brought in by the perception that they could afford to pay monthly mortgage rates. However, in 2004, the price of oil started to rise, and the Fed responded by gradually increasing interest rates (Beese, 2008). Home owners were caught off guard by the change in interest rates. Many people were already in debt from the previous recession by taking out home equity loans to keep them afloat. Many of which had now taken out subprime loans (which are loans offered to people with poor credit) from eager lenders and backed by the government. Financial institutions did little stop subprime lending, the popularity of these types of loans kept growing, and lending companies took quantity of loans over quality which added to the so called â€Å"housing bubble† (Burry, 2010). 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Recession often results in plunges in the stock market, unemployment, housing market, and a decrease in the quality

A Critical Analysis of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis Free Essays

Abstract There exists vast literature regarding the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Wade (1998) observed that: Interpretations of the Asian crisis have coalesced around two rival stories: the â€Å"death throes of Asian state capitalism† story about internal, real economy causes; and the â€Å"panic triggering debt deflation in a basically sound but under-regulated system† story that gives more role to external and financial system causes (Wade 1998, p.1535). We will write a custom essay sample on A Critical Analysis of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Whereas Wade supports the latter narrative based on the chronology of the crisis, this short paper holds that the combination of both stories caused the 1997 Asian financial crisis, rather than one view point being more significant than the other. The major underlying reasons, which contributed to the crisis, are categorized using the criteria described by Wade. There are some overlaps in terms of the supporting evidence and these further support the paper’s stand. This paper also presents lessons learned and not learned from the experience. View points on Financial CrisisSupporting Evidence ‘Death throes view’– ‘Excessive government intervention in markets’ and the state-directed Asian market system (Wade 1998, p.1536)– Structural and Policy Distortions- Rapid Liberalization and Deregulation of Financial Markets*- Moral Hazard** ‘Investor pullout/Debt deflation in a sound but under-regulated system’– ‘Self-fulfilling withdrawal of short-term loans, fuelled by each investor’s recognition that all other investors are withdrawing their claims’ due to short term debts exceeding foreign exchange reserves (Wade 1998, p. 1537)– Rapid Liberalization and Deregulation of Financial Markets*- Dependence on Exports- Pegging currencies to the U.S. dollar- Excessive Borrowing and Currency Speculation- Creditor Panic- Moral Hazard** Introduction The 1997 Asian financial crisis signalled the end of the Asian Tigers’ â€Å"economic miracle.† Prior to the crisis, these Asian Tigers (i.e. Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan) and Tiger Cubs (i.e. Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines) were held as role models to developing nations on how to achieve economic growth. Criticisms and doubts about their economic policies were disregarded in favour of their strong growth rates; while financial institutions, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (WB), showered them with praise (Karunatilleka 1999). Table 1: Key Variables in 1996 – The Asian Tigers before the crisis Investment as a Proportion of GDP (a) Gross Savings Rate Trade as a Proportion of GDP (b) Share of World GDP Real GDP Growth Consumer Inflation Hong Kong31.3% 30.6% 122.9% 0.6% 4.9% 6.0% Indonesia32.1% 31.2% 20.4% 0.8% 8.0% 7.9% Malaysia42.2% 42.6% 78.9% 0.4% 8.6% 3.5% Philippines23.2% 15.6% 31.2% 0.3% 5.7% 8.4% Singapore36.5% 50.1% 0.3% 6.9% 1.4% South Korea36.8% 35.2% 28.9% 1.8% 7.1% 4.9% Taiwan21.2% 25.1% 40.1% 1.0% 5.7% 3.1% Thailand42.2% 35.9% 34.9% 0.7% 5.5% 5.8% Notes:(a) GFCF plus inventories (GFCF only in the cases of Hong Kong and Singapore) (b) Average value of exports plus imports as a proportion of GDP (including re-exports in the case of Hong Kong, given its status as an entrepot). Source: Karunatilleka 1999 The crisis was triggered on July 1997 due to speculative attacks on the Thai baht. Investors sold-off baht-denominated assets and withdrew dollar-denominated loans to Thai institutions. As a result, the Thai government was forced to float the baht and let go of its peg to the U.S. dollar because it did not have enough currency reserves to support its fixed exchange rate. In the succeeding months, other Southeast Asian countries followed suit as the financial crisis spread throughout the region (Hale, 2011). By January 1998, the stock markets in many of the affected countries had lost more than 70% their pre-crisis values, their currencies had also largely depreciated against the U.S. dollar, and their governments had to seek substantial financial support from the IMF (Hill, 2003). Table 2: Key Currency Movements from 1997 to 1999 CountryCurrency3/1/97 Rate Lowest Rate Maximum Depreciation Ending Rate 1999 Change 1997-99 ChinaYuan8.30 8.30 0.0% 8.28 0.2% Hong KongHong Kong Dollar7.74 7.77 -0.3% 7.77 -0.3% TaiwanTaiwan Dollar27.50 34.95 -21.3% 31.50 -12.7% IndonesiaRupiah2,398.00 16,475.00 -85.4% 7,150.00 -66.5% JapanYen120.40 147.26 -18.2% 102.23 17.8% KoreaWon864.40 1,967.00 -56.1% 1,142.50 -24.3% PhilippinesPhilippine Peso26.34 46.10 -42.9% 40.40 -34.8% SingaporeSingapore Dollar1.43 1.79 -20.5% 1.67 -14.6% ThailandBaht25.90 55.80 -53.6% 37.60 -31.1% Source: Vallorani 2009 What caused the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis? Many factors are believed to have contributed to the crisis. Some of the very components credited with spurring the region’s economic development were later acknowledged as having inadvertently played a part in the subsequent financial crisis. The following are the factors that merged together to create the perfect storm which resulted in the crisis. Structural and Policy Distortions The aftermath of the crisis brought to light several structural and policy inefficiencies that weakened the economic foundations of several Asian economies. Governments often undertook large infrastructure projects to promote economic growth and encouraged private businesses to invest in sectors that are in line with national industrialization goals. Corsetti et al (1999, p.306) pointed out this led to a ‘structure of incentives’ within the corporate and financial sectors and ‘close links between public and private institutions.’ Furthermore, the political pressures to maintain high growth rates, the absence of an effective regulatory business framework, and a culture of crony capitalism resulted in government guarantees for private projects (Karunetilleka, 1999; Corsetti et al 1999). Rapid Liberalization and Deregulation of Financial Markets In the years prior to the crisis, the Asian Tigers were praised for its efforts to open up its financial markets. However, on hindsight, experts believe that the development of financial systems had not kept pace with the rapid liberalization and deregulation of financial markets. Lending standards were lenient, government’s supervision and regulation of the financial sector were weak, there was a culture of inter-connected lending, some banks were undercapitalized, and financial safety nets were not in place (Nanto, 1998; Radelet and Sachs, 1999). Vallorani (2009) gave some insights on the effect of deregulation on the financial sector by pointing out the concept of â€Å"hot money† and the high risk-taking that was prevalent in the years prior to the crisis. Deregulation in the financial sector led to easy money, which caused many speculative and bad loans to be made. It also led to large debt burdens. Since hot money tends to follow hot money, a feeling of â€Å"euphoria†, and â€Å"I can’t lose† mentality, pumped money into already overvalued sectors, leading to valuations that could not be sustained. It also led to a misunderstanding of the risks involved with these investments. Dependence on Exports Export was the main engine that propelled Asian economies to grow. However, the excessive dependence on trade had made these countries vulnerable to currency movements. During the mid 1990s, real exchange appreciations made Asian companies less competitive, especially in terms of labour cost. Additionally, over production and excess capacity led to falling export prices. Rising competition from China and Mexico were also believed to have cast some doubts about the competitiveness, growth prospects, and ability to pay loans by Asian exporters (Radelet and Sachs, 1999; Hill 2003). Pegging currencies to the U.S. dollar Since the currencies of most Southeast Asian economies were pegged to the U.S. dollar, the appreciation of the dollar caused the exports of these countries to become more expensive and less competitive (Hale, 2011). At the onset of the crisis, the rising dollar caused these countries to run large deficits to fund their currencies and maintain the fixed dollar rate (Karunetilleka, 1999). As governments failed to maintain the dollar peg, their currencies depreciated sharply against the dollar and contributed to the financial panic (Hill, 2003; Radelet and Sachs, 1999). Excessive Borrowing and Currency Speculation The high economic growth of the early 1990s led to an attitude of excessive borrowing – most of which were used to fund real estate projects. The money loaned to domestic firms for these projects were funded by borrowing excessively from abroad. The influx of money to fund these assets caused an economic bubble as real estate prices increased dramatically (Vallorani, 2009). In the boom years, speculative loans were awarded to firms which were not credit worthy (Vallorani, 2009). As the crisis unfolded, it became apparent that many companies had a huge mismatch between liabilities that were denominated in U.S. dollars and assets that were mostly denominated in domestic currency (Hale, 2011). Realizing that many firms would be unable to repay their loans, currency speculation began. The Thai baht was the first to fall victim to speculative attacks, as speculators sold the baht based on the belief that the exchange rate could not be maintained (Vallorani, 2009). Other Asian countries experienced the same fate. And in what seems to be a self-fulfilling prophecy, the depreciation of domestic currencies ultimately caused many firms to default on their loan payments, thereby exacerbating the crisis. Creditor Panic Corsetti et al (1999) attributes the crisis to panic by domestic and international investors. Radelet and Sachs (1999, p.10) also support this claim. They argued that the expectation of each investor that other investors will pull out their funds caused them to panic and behave in a herd mentality. More importantly, the ‘high level of short-term foreign liabilities relative to short-term foreign assets’ spurred each creditor to leave the country ahead of other creditors because they knew that the last short-term creditor to withdraw funds will not be repaid on time. Moral Hazard Radelet and Sachs (1998, p.3) pointed out that ‘over-investment in dubious activities resulting from the moral hazard of implicit guarantees, corruption, and anticipated bailouts’ is one of the main culprits as to why huge amounts of capital suddenly left Asia. In a nutshell, creditors believed that they would be bailed out in the event of a crisis. They felt confident that they would be repaid for lending to companies with close ties to the government, especially for projects with public guarantees. Prior to the crisis, international banks had poured out huge funds to Asian domestic financial institutions without regard for sensible credit standards. This over-lending practice may have been caused by the presumption that short-term credit liabilities would be implicitly guaranteed by government intervention or IMF bailout programs (Corsetti et al, 1999). Conclusion: Lessons learned and yet to be learned Fifteen years after the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the experience still resonates today, especially in the context of the current global financial crisis. Valuable lessons have been learned and continue to be applied to improve economic policies and structures. However, there still remains some important learning that have yet to be realized from the past. Lessons Learned Pitfalls of rapid financial liberalization– Rapid financial liberalization caused weaknesses in the financial systems. Well-functioning financial systems require strong legal and regulatory infrastructures (Radelet and Sachs, 1999). Dangers of fixed exchange rates– Fixed rates make markets very vulnerable to huge shifts and fluctuations when they can no longer be maintained (Radelet and Sachs, 1999). Mistaken policy interventions– The initial response of the IMF and U.S. treasury exacerbated the crisis in its early stages. This supports the need for a more formal mechanism for international private debt solutions rather than IMF bailouts (Radelet and Sachs, 1999).- ‘Swift government intervention with appropriate monetary policy’ will help to lessen the impact of a financial crisis (Vallorani, 2009, p.17). Lack of effective mechanisms to stop financial panic– ‘The solution is to develop institutions that can provide more solid foundation for well-functioning capital markets’ (Radelet and Sachs 1999, p.18). Improvements in market/financial regulations– Regulations are needed to guarantee a ‘level playing field’ and prevent the free market economy to ‘run amok’ (Vallorani 2009, p.17)- Bank regulators should require greater transparency and must have stricter regulations in supervising lending activities (Hale, 2011). Implement policies to prevent market speculations – Suggest to have a ‘universal tax on currency transactions’ to discourage market speculations- Another option is a fee-based system, whereby private financial institutions create an insurance fund similar to the IMF.(Karunatilleka 1999, p.39) Updating the policies of IMF and WB– Improving global regulations- Creating a process of active and transparent surveillance for borrowing nations- Creating a code of best practices on social policy issues- Reinforcing international and domestic financial systems- Promoting more widely available and transparent data on member countries economic situation and policies- Underscoring the central role of the IMF in crisis management- Increasing the involvement of the private sector in forestalling or resolving financial crises (Karunatilleka 1999, p. 39) Enhancing regional surveillance and participation– Regional organisations (i.e. ASEAN) could provide warning/advise to its member countries who are heading for trouble (Karunatilleka 1999, p. 40). The current global financial crisis has some significant similarities with the 1997 Asian financial crisis. This is proof that there are still a few lessons yet to be learned to prevent future crisis from happening. The most important lesson that keeps recurring as a major â€Å"mistake† in almost every financial crisis is aptly expressed by Vallorani (2009). The lesson that was not learned is that speculative spending, fuelled by risky loans, leads to asset bubbles, and bubbles always burst. The Asian bubble burst in 1997. The .com bubble burst in 2000. The US real estate bubble burst in 2008. It seems to be part of human nature to chase what is hot, to chase the next â€Å"I can’t lose† investment, to not want to be left out when everyone else is making easy money. When greed takes over, bubbles are built. Unfortunately, when they burst, they take everyone with them (Vallorani 2009, p.18). References Agenor, P-E, Miller, M, Vines, D, Weber, A (1999). The Asian Financial Crisis: Causes, Contagion and Consequences. Cambridge United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p9-28. Corsetti, G, Pesenti P, Roubini, N. (1999). What caused the Asian currency and financial crisis?. Japan and the World Economy. 11 (1), 305-373. Hale, G. (2011). Could We Have Learned from the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997–98?. Available: http://www.frbsf.org/publications/economics/letter/2011/el2011-06.pdf. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Hill, C. (2003). The Asian Financial Crisis. Available: http://www.wright.edu/~tdung/asiancrisis-hill.htm. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Karunatilleka, E. (1999). The Asian Economic Crisis. Available: http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons/lib/research/rp99/rp99-014.pdf. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Moreno, R. (1998). What caused East Asia’s Financial Crisis?. Available: http://www.frbsf.org/econrsrch/wklyltr/wklyltr98/el98-24.html. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Nanto, D. (1998). The 1997-98 Asian Financial Crisis. Available: http://www.fas.org/man/crs/crs-asia2.htm. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Radelet, S, Sachs, J. (1999). What Have We Learned, So Far, From the Asian Financial Crisis?. Available: http://www.cid.harvard.edu/archive/hiid/papers/aea122.pdf. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Radelet, S, Sachs, J. (2000). The Onset of the East Asian Financial Crisis. In: Krugman, P Currency Crises. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p105-162. Wade, R. (1998). The Asian Debt-and-development Crisis of 1997: Causes and Consequences. World Development. 26 (8), 1535-1553. Vallorani, E. (2009). 1997 Financial Crisis. Available: http://www.avanti-is.com/PDF/1997%20Asian%20Financial%20Crisis.pdf. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. How to cite A Critical Analysis of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, Essay examples

A Critical Analysis of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis Free Essays

Abstract There exists vast literature regarding the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Wade (1998) observed that: Interpretations of the Asian crisis have coalesced around two rival stories: the â€Å"death throes of Asian state capitalism† story about internal, real economy causes; and the â€Å"panic triggering debt deflation in a basically sound but under-regulated system† story that gives more role to external and financial system causes (Wade 1998, p.1535). We will write a custom essay sample on A Critical Analysis of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Whereas Wade supports the latter narrative based on the chronology of the crisis, this short paper holds that the combination of both stories caused the 1997 Asian financial crisis, rather than one view point being more significant than the other. The major underlying reasons, which contributed to the crisis, are categorized using the criteria described by Wade. There are some overlaps in terms of the supporting evidence and these further support the paper’s stand. This paper also presents lessons learned and not learned from the experience. View points on Financial CrisisSupporting Evidence ‘Death throes view’– ‘Excessive government intervention in markets’ and the state-directed Asian market system (Wade 1998, p.1536)– Structural and Policy Distortions- Rapid Liberalization and Deregulation of Financial Markets*- Moral Hazard** ‘Investor pullout/Debt deflation in a sound but under-regulated system’– ‘Self-fulfilling withdrawal of short-term loans, fuelled by each investor’s recognition that all other investors are withdrawing their claims’ due to short term debts exceeding foreign exchange reserves (Wade 1998, p. 1537)– Rapid Liberalization and Deregulation of Financial Markets*- Dependence on Exports- Pegging currencies to the U.S. dollar- Excessive Borrowing and Currency Speculation- Creditor Panic- Moral Hazard** Introduction The 1997 Asian financial crisis signalled the end of the Asian Tigers’ â€Å"economic miracle.† Prior to the crisis, these Asian Tigers (i.e. Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan) and Tiger Cubs (i.e. Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines) were held as role models to developing nations on how to achieve economic growth. Criticisms and doubts about their economic policies were disregarded in favour of their strong growth rates; while financial institutions, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (WB), showered them with praise (Karunatilleka 1999). Table 1: Key Variables in 1996 – The Asian Tigers before the crisis Investment as a Proportion of GDP (a) Gross Savings Rate Trade as a Proportion of GDP (b) Share of World GDP Real GDP Growth Consumer Inflation Hong Kong31.3% 30.6% 122.9% 0.6% 4.9% 6.0% Indonesia32.1% 31.2% 20.4% 0.8% 8.0% 7.9% Malaysia42.2% 42.6% 78.9% 0.4% 8.6% 3.5% Philippines23.2% 15.6% 31.2% 0.3% 5.7% 8.4% Singapore36.5% 50.1% 0.3% 6.9% 1.4% South Korea36.8% 35.2% 28.9% 1.8% 7.1% 4.9% Taiwan21.2% 25.1% 40.1% 1.0% 5.7% 3.1% Thailand42.2% 35.9% 34.9% 0.7% 5.5% 5.8% Notes:(a) GFCF plus inventories (GFCF only in the cases of Hong Kong and Singapore) (b) Average value of exports plus imports as a proportion of GDP (including re-exports in the case of Hong Kong, given its status as an entrepot). Source: Karunatilleka 1999 The crisis was triggered on July 1997 due to speculative attacks on the Thai baht. Investors sold-off baht-denominated assets and withdrew dollar-denominated loans to Thai institutions. As a result, the Thai government was forced to float the baht and let go of its peg to the U.S. dollar because it did not have enough currency reserves to support its fixed exchange rate. In the succeeding months, other Southeast Asian countries followed suit as the financial crisis spread throughout the region (Hale, 2011). By January 1998, the stock markets in many of the affected countries had lost more than 70% their pre-crisis values, their currencies had also largely depreciated against the U.S. dollar, and their governments had to seek substantial financial support from the IMF (Hill, 2003). Table 2: Key Currency Movements from 1997 to 1999 CountryCurrency3/1/97 Rate Lowest Rate Maximum Depreciation Ending Rate 1999 Change 1997-99 ChinaYuan8.30 8.30 0.0% 8.28 0.2% Hong KongHong Kong Dollar7.74 7.77 -0.3% 7.77 -0.3% TaiwanTaiwan Dollar27.50 34.95 -21.3% 31.50 -12.7% IndonesiaRupiah2,398.00 16,475.00 -85.4% 7,150.00 -66.5% JapanYen120.40 147.26 -18.2% 102.23 17.8% KoreaWon864.40 1,967.00 -56.1% 1,142.50 -24.3% PhilippinesPhilippine Peso26.34 46.10 -42.9% 40.40 -34.8% SingaporeSingapore Dollar1.43 1.79 -20.5% 1.67 -14.6% ThailandBaht25.90 55.80 -53.6% 37.60 -31.1% Source: Vallorani 2009 What caused the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis? Many factors are believed to have contributed to the crisis. Some of the very components credited with spurring the region’s economic development were later acknowledged as having inadvertently played a part in the subsequent financial crisis. The following are the factors that merged together to create the perfect storm which resulted in the crisis. Structural and Policy Distortions The aftermath of the crisis brought to light several structural and policy inefficiencies that weakened the economic foundations of several Asian economies. Governments often undertook large infrastructure projects to promote economic growth and encouraged private businesses to invest in sectors that are in line with national industrialization goals. Corsetti et al (1999, p.306) pointed out this led to a ‘structure of incentives’ within the corporate and financial sectors and ‘close links between public and private institutions.’ Furthermore, the political pressures to maintain high growth rates, the absence of an effective regulatory business framework, and a culture of crony capitalism resulted in government guarantees for private projects (Karunetilleka, 1999; Corsetti et al 1999). Rapid Liberalization and Deregulation of Financial Markets In the years prior to the crisis, the Asian Tigers were praised for its efforts to open up its financial markets. However, on hindsight, experts believe that the development of financial systems had not kept pace with the rapid liberalization and deregulation of financial markets. Lending standards were lenient, government’s supervision and regulation of the financial sector were weak, there was a culture of inter-connected lending, some banks were undercapitalized, and financial safety nets were not in place (Nanto, 1998; Radelet and Sachs, 1999). Vallorani (2009) gave some insights on the effect of deregulation on the financial sector by pointing out the concept of â€Å"hot money† and the high risk-taking that was prevalent in the years prior to the crisis. Deregulation in the financial sector led to easy money, which caused many speculative and bad loans to be made. It also led to large debt burdens. Since hot money tends to follow hot money, a feeling of â€Å"euphoria†, and â€Å"I can’t lose† mentality, pumped money into already overvalued sectors, leading to valuations that could not be sustained. It also led to a misunderstanding of the risks involved with these investments. Dependence on Exports Export was the main engine that propelled Asian economies to grow. However, the excessive dependence on trade had made these countries vulnerable to currency movements. During the mid 1990s, real exchange appreciations made Asian companies less competitive, especially in terms of labour cost. Additionally, over production and excess capacity led to falling export prices. Rising competition from China and Mexico were also believed to have cast some doubts about the competitiveness, growth prospects, and ability to pay loans by Asian exporters (Radelet and Sachs, 1999; Hill 2003). Pegging currencies to the U.S. dollar Since the currencies of most Southeast Asian economies were pegged to the U.S. dollar, the appreciation of the dollar caused the exports of these countries to become more expensive and less competitive (Hale, 2011). At the onset of the crisis, the rising dollar caused these countries to run large deficits to fund their currencies and maintain the fixed dollar rate (Karunetilleka, 1999). As governments failed to maintain the dollar peg, their currencies depreciated sharply against the dollar and contributed to the financial panic (Hill, 2003; Radelet and Sachs, 1999). Excessive Borrowing and Currency Speculation The high economic growth of the early 1990s led to an attitude of excessive borrowing – most of which were used to fund real estate projects. The money loaned to domestic firms for these projects were funded by borrowing excessively from abroad. The influx of money to fund these assets caused an economic bubble as real estate prices increased dramatically (Vallorani, 2009). In the boom years, speculative loans were awarded to firms which were not credit worthy (Vallorani, 2009). As the crisis unfolded, it became apparent that many companies had a huge mismatch between liabilities that were denominated in U.S. dollars and assets that were mostly denominated in domestic currency (Hale, 2011). Realizing that many firms would be unable to repay their loans, currency speculation began. The Thai baht was the first to fall victim to speculative attacks, as speculators sold the baht based on the belief that the exchange rate could not be maintained (Vallorani, 2009). Other Asian countries experienced the same fate. And in what seems to be a self-fulfilling prophecy, the depreciation of domestic currencies ultimately caused many firms to default on their loan payments, thereby exacerbating the crisis. Creditor Panic Corsetti et al (1999) attributes the crisis to panic by domestic and international investors. Radelet and Sachs (1999, p.10) also support this claim. They argued that the expectation of each investor that other investors will pull out their funds caused them to panic and behave in a herd mentality. More importantly, the ‘high level of short-term foreign liabilities relative to short-term foreign assets’ spurred each creditor to leave the country ahead of other creditors because they knew that the last short-term creditor to withdraw funds will not be repaid on time. Moral Hazard Radelet and Sachs (1998, p.3) pointed out that ‘over-investment in dubious activities resulting from the moral hazard of implicit guarantees, corruption, and anticipated bailouts’ is one of the main culprits as to why huge amounts of capital suddenly left Asia. In a nutshell, creditors believed that they would be bailed out in the event of a crisis. They felt confident that they would be repaid for lending to companies with close ties to the government, especially for projects with public guarantees. Prior to the crisis, international banks had poured out huge funds to Asian domestic financial institutions without regard for sensible credit standards. This over-lending practice may have been caused by the presumption that short-term credit liabilities would be implicitly guaranteed by government intervention or IMF bailout programs (Corsetti et al, 1999). Conclusion: Lessons learned and yet to be learned Fifteen years after the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the experience still resonates today, especially in the context of the current global financial crisis. Valuable lessons have been learned and continue to be applied to improve economic policies and structures. However, there still remains some important learning that have yet to be realized from the past. Lessons Learned Pitfalls of rapid financial liberalization– Rapid financial liberalization caused weaknesses in the financial systems. Well-functioning financial systems require strong legal and regulatory infrastructures (Radelet and Sachs, 1999). Dangers of fixed exchange rates– Fixed rates make markets very vulnerable to huge shifts and fluctuations when they can no longer be maintained (Radelet and Sachs, 1999). Mistaken policy interventions– The initial response of the IMF and U.S. treasury exacerbated the crisis in its early stages. This supports the need for a more formal mechanism for international private debt solutions rather than IMF bailouts (Radelet and Sachs, 1999).- ‘Swift government intervention with appropriate monetary policy’ will help to lessen the impact of a financial crisis (Vallorani, 2009, p.17). Lack of effective mechanisms to stop financial panic– ‘The solution is to develop institutions that can provide more solid foundation for well-functioning capital markets’ (Radelet and Sachs 1999, p.18). Improvements in market/financial regulations– Regulations are needed to guarantee a ‘level playing field’ and prevent the free market economy to ‘run amok’ (Vallorani 2009, p.17)- Bank regulators should require greater transparency and must have stricter regulations in supervising lending activities (Hale, 2011). Implement policies to prevent market speculations – Suggest to have a ‘universal tax on currency transactions’ to discourage market speculations- Another option is a fee-based system, whereby private financial institutions create an insurance fund similar to the IMF.(Karunatilleka 1999, p.39) Updating the policies of IMF and WB– Improving global regulations- Creating a process of active and transparent surveillance for borrowing nations- Creating a code of best practices on social policy issues- Reinforcing international and domestic financial systems- Promoting more widely available and transparent data on member countries economic situation and policies- Underscoring the central role of the IMF in crisis management- Increasing the involvement of the private sector in forestalling or resolving financial crises (Karunatilleka 1999, p. 39) Enhancing regional surveillance and participation– Regional organisations (i.e. ASEAN) could provide warning/advise to its member countries who are heading for trouble (Karunatilleka 1999, p. 40). The current global financial crisis has some significant similarities with the 1997 Asian financial crisis. This is proof that there are still a few lessons yet to be learned to prevent future crisis from happening. The most important lesson that keeps recurring as a major â€Å"mistake† in almost every financial crisis is aptly expressed by Vallorani (2009). The lesson that was not learned is that speculative spending, fuelled by risky loans, leads to asset bubbles, and bubbles always burst. The Asian bubble burst in 1997. The .com bubble burst in 2000. The US real estate bubble burst in 2008. It seems to be part of human nature to chase what is hot, to chase the next â€Å"I can’t lose† investment, to not want to be left out when everyone else is making easy money. When greed takes over, bubbles are built. Unfortunately, when they burst, they take everyone with them (Vallorani 2009, p.18). References Agenor, P-E, Miller, M, Vines, D, Weber, A (1999). The Asian Financial Crisis: Causes, Contagion and Consequences. Cambridge United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p9-28. Corsetti, G, Pesenti P, Roubini, N. (1999). What caused the Asian currency and financial crisis?. Japan and the World Economy. 11 (1), 305-373. Hale, G. (2011). Could We Have Learned from the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997–98?. Available: http://www.frbsf.org/publications/economics/letter/2011/el2011-06.pdf. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Hill, C. (2003). The Asian Financial Crisis. Available: http://www.wright.edu/~tdung/asiancrisis-hill.htm. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Karunatilleka, E. (1999). The Asian Economic Crisis. Available: http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons/lib/research/rp99/rp99-014.pdf. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Moreno, R. (1998). What caused East Asia’s Financial Crisis?. Available: http://www.frbsf.org/econrsrch/wklyltr/wklyltr98/el98-24.html. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Nanto, D. (1998). The 1997-98 Asian Financial Crisis. Available: http://www.fas.org/man/crs/crs-asia2.htm. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Radelet, S, Sachs, J. (1999). What Have We Learned, So Far, From the Asian Financial Crisis?. Available: http://www.cid.harvard.edu/archive/hiid/papers/aea122.pdf. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. Radelet, S, Sachs, J. (2000). The Onset of the East Asian Financial Crisis. In: Krugman, P Currency Crises. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p105-162. Wade, R. (1998). The Asian Debt-and-development Crisis of 1997: Causes and Consequences. World Development. 26 (8), 1535-1553. Vallorani, E. (2009). 1997 Financial Crisis. Available: http://www.avanti-is.com/PDF/1997%20Asian%20Financial%20Crisis.pdf. Last accessed 17th Sep 2012. How to cite A Critical Analysis of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, Essay examples